[16][102], Conspiracy theories often make use of complicated and detailed arguments, including ones which appear to be analytical or scientific. This suggests that an effective approach may be to provide criticism while avoiding such challenges. The good news is, the same tools that may have led your loved one to fall into a conspiracy theory can be used to debunk it. However, belief in conspiracy theories is primarily driven by emotion. [123], Barkun has adopted this term to refer to how the synthesis of paranoid conspiracy theories, which were once limited to American fringe audiences, has given them mass appeal and enabled them to become commonplace in mass media,[124] thereby inaugurating an unrivaled period of people actively preparing for apocalyptic or millenarian scenarios in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, they may help people identify governmental deceptions, particularly in repressive societies, and encourage government transparency. [77] Variants include conspiracies involving colonialism, Zionism, superpowers, oil, and the war on terrorism, which may be referred to as a war against Islam. Rothbard describes this latter activity as a matter of confirming with certain facts one's initial paranoia. Butter, Michael, and Peter Knight. [27], Each person may endorse conspiracy theories for one of many different reasons. [29][30][31][32] Exposure to conspiracy theories in news media and popular entertainment increases receptiveness to conspiratorial ideas, and has also increased the social acceptability of fringe beliefs. [132], Explanation of an event or situation that invokes a conspiracy. ", Conspiracy generally carries a penalty on its own. [83], Harry G. West and others have noted that while conspiracy theorists may often be dismissed as a fringe minority, certain evidence suggests that a wide range of the U.S. maintains a belief in conspiracy theories. Any minor errors in the response are heavily emphasized, while deficiencies in the arguments of other proponents are generally excused. Grimes estimated that: The philosopher Karl Popper described the central problem of conspiracy theories as a form of fundamental attribution error, where every event is generally perceived as being intentional and planned, greatly underestimating the effects of randomness and unintended consequences. [20][72] This even applies when the conspiracy theories directly contradict each other, e.g. [47], Conspiracy beliefs are widespread around the world. [106], Humanistic psychologists argue that even if a posited cabal behind an alleged conspiracy is almost always perceived as hostile, there often remains an element of reassurance for theorists. [93], The widespread belief in conspiracy theories has become a topic of interest for sociologists, psychologists, and experts in folklore since at least the 1960s, when a number of conspiracy theories arose regarding the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. ", Sunstein, Cass R., and Adrian Vermeule.  Most U.S. jurisdictions also require an overt act toward furthering the agreement. Favored subjects include famous deaths and assassinations, morally dubious government activities, suppressed technologies, and "false flag" terrorism. [46], Conspiracy theories resist falsification and are reinforced by circular reasoning: both evidence against the conspiracy and an absence of evidence for it are re-interpreted as evidence of its truth,[6][8] whereby the conspiracy becomes a matter of faith rather than something that can be proved or disproved. [41] In his 2013 book Conspiracy Theory in America, political scientist Lance deHaven-Smith suggested that the term entered everyday language in the United States after 1964, the year in which the Warren Commission published its findings on the Kennedy assassination, with The New York Times running five stories that year using the term. The enemy, for example, may be the cosmopolitan intellectual, but the paranoid will outdo him in the apparatus of scholarship, even of pedantry. The Oxford English Dictionary defines conspiracy theory as "the theory that an event or phenomenon occurs as a result of a conspiracy between interested parties; spec. ", "How many people does it take to keep a conspiracy alive? Belief in conspiracy theories is correlated with anxiety disorders, paranoia, and authoritarian beliefs. Such a mechanism could have been useful in the small-scale environment humanity evolved in but are mismatched in a modern, complex society and thus "misfire", perceiving conspiracies where none exist.[118]. The "Enemy Within" finds the conspirators lurking inside the nation, indistinguishable from ordinary citizens. Conspiracy theories are widely present on the Web in the form of blogs and YouTube videos, as well as on social media. [78][79][80] Roger Cohen has suggested that the popularity of conspiracy theories in the Arab world is "the ultimate refuge of the powerless". The research suggests that the smaller the minority believing in a specific theory, the more attractive it is to conspiracy theorists. The suggestion of a conspiracy to promote the theory of global warming was put forward in a 1990 documentary The Greenhouse Conspiracy broadcast by Channel Four in the United Kingdom on 12 August 1990, as part of the Equinox series, which asserted that scientists critical of global warming theory were denied funding. Belief in the power of a cabal is an implicit assertion of human dignity—an unconscious affirmation that man is responsible for his own destiny. "[121], French sociologist Bruno Latour suggests that the widespread popularity of conspiracy theories in mass culture may be due, in part, to the pervasive presence of Marxist-inspired critical theory and similar ideas in academia since the 1970s. [4][5] The term has a negative connotation, implying that the appeal to a conspiracy is based on prejudice or insufficient evidence. Although I like to think of myself as a middle of the road kind of individual, it is important to keep in mind that the truth does not always lie in the middle of a debate, whether we are talking about climate change, vaccines, or antipsychotic medications. Conspiracy theories are most likely to inspire violence when they call for urgent action, appeal to prejudices, or demonize and scapegoat enemies. [20][46] This strategy lets conspiracy theories insulate themselves from neutral analyses of the evidence, and makes them resistant to questioning or correction, which is called "epistemic self-insulation". [16][17] They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh, Anders Breivik and Brenton Tarrant, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. "[129] Popper argued that totalitarianism was founded on conspiracy theories which drew on imaginary plots which were driven by paranoid scenarios predicated on tribalism, chauvinism, or racism. To understand this conspiracy we must turn not to Sarajevo and the conclave of Serbian nationalists plotting their assassination in the summer of 1914, but to a chilly drawing room in London in the winter of 1891. [16] More generally, belief in conspiracy theories is associated with holding extreme and uncompromising viewpoints, and may help people in maintaining those viewpoints. [44] In contrast, the term "conspiracy theory" refers to hypothesized conspiracies that have specific characteristics. [66], Clare Birchall at King's College London describes conspiracy theory as a "form of popular knowledge or interpretation". From Matters of Fact to Matters of Concern. It identifies elites, blames them for economic and social catastrophes, and assumes that things will be better once popular action can remove them from positions of power. [44] According to Ruseell Muirhead and Nancy Rosenblum, historically, traditional conspiracism has entailed a "theory", but over time, "conspiracy" and "theory" have become decoupled, as modern conspiracism is often without any kind of theory behind it.[57][58]. ("Who benefits? [16] AIDS denialism by the government of South Africa, motivated by conspiracy theories, caused an estimated 330,000 deaths from AIDS,[20][21][22] while belief in conspiracy theories about genetically modified foods led the government of Zambia to reject food aid during a famine,[17] at a time when 3 million people in the country were suffering from hunger.  Some conspiracy statutes assign the same punishment for conspiracy as for the target offense. "[92], It has been suggested that directly countering misinformation can be counterproductive. [113], Inquiry into possible motives behind the accepting of irrational conspiracy theories has linked[114] these beliefs to distress resulting from an event that occurred, such as the events of 9/11.  Thus, where one or more members of the conspiracy committed illegal acts to further the conspiracy's goals, all members of the conspiracy may be held accountable for those acts. [16], Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, emerging as a cultural phenomenon of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Subsequent effects on managers include reduced profits, reduced trust from employees, and damage to the company's image. a belief that some covert but influential agency (typically political in motivation and oppressive in intent) is responsible for an unexplained event". [a] The use of the word 'knowledge' here suggests ways in which conspiracy theory may be considered in relation to legitimate modes of knowing. And now it's reached at least one Fox News host. [20][46], Conspiracy theorists often take advantage of false balance in the media. [33] In China, one widely published conspiracy theory claims that a number of events including the rise of Hitler, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, and climate change were planned by the Rothschild family, which may have led to effects on discussions about China's currency policy.  Others impose lesser penalties. "Belief in conspiracy theories. One day, Catherine Hand took me aside for a little chat. One conspiracy theory that propagated through former US President Barack Obama's time in office[54] claimed that he was born in Kenya instead of Hawaii[55]- where he was born. Therefore, one possible solution is offering consumers a seat at the table to mend their mistrust in institutions. [17], It is possible that conspiracy theories may also produce some compensatory benefits to society in certain situations. ), Goertzel, Ted. [17][46] Any information that contradicts the conspiracy theory is suggested to be disinformation by the alleged conspiracy. Theirs is the quest for spurious connections between disparate historical actors or events. [52] The presence and representation of conspiracy theories in search engine results has been monitored and studied, showing significant variation across different topics, and a general absence of reputable, high-quality links in the results.[53]. "[81], Sociological historian Holger Herwig found in studying German explanations for the origins of World War I, "Those events that are most important are hardest to understand because they attract the greatest attention from myth makers and charlatans. [29][30][31][32] The general predisposition to believe conspiracy theories cuts across partisan and ideological lines. asks Latour: no matter which position you take, "You're always right! [120] Likewise, Roger Cohen writing for The New York Times has said that, "captive minds; ... resort to conspiracy theory because it is the ultimate refuge of the powerless. According to Mintz, conspiracism denotes "belief in the primacy of conspiracies in the unfolding of history":[75]:4, Conspiracism serves the needs of diverse political and social groups in America and elsewhere. [46][93] In addition, publishing criticism of conspiracy theories can result in legitimizing them. [70], Conspiracy theory rhetoric exploits several important cognitive biases, including proportionality bias, attribution bias, and confirmation bias. Birchall 2006: "[W]e can appreciate conspiracy theory as a unique form of popular knowledge or interpretation, Birchall 2006: "What we quickly discover ... is that it becomes impossible to map conspiracy theory and academic discourse onto a clear illegitimate/legitimate divide. In addition, both disregarding the claims and attempting to address them will be interpreted as proof of a conspiracy. ", "Google chemtrails: A methodology to analyze topic representation in search engine results", "Republicans Ride Theories of the Fringe", "Will Reality Bite Back: Conspiratorial Fictions and the Assault on Democracy", "Just because you're paranoid, doesn't mean they're not out to get you", "Why People Believe in Conspiracy Theories", "Wall Streeters like conspiracy theories. The "Benevolent Conspiracies" are angelic forces that work behind the scenes to improve the world and help people. ", "People Drawn to Conspiracy Theories Share a Cluster of Psychological Features", "The relationship between schizotypal facets and conspiracist beliefs via cognitive processes", "Conspiracy theory and cognitive style: a worldview", "A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Psychological Research on Conspiracy Beliefs: Field Characteristics, Measurement Instruments, and Associations With Personality Traits", "Conspiracy Theorists Just Want to Feel Special", "Born With the Desire to Know the Unknown", "Why Has Critique Run out of Steam? [34][48], Conspiracy theories once limited to fringe audiences have become commonplace in mass media, contributing to conspiracism emerging as a cultural phenomenon in the United States of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. If you cannot change your own life, it must be that some greater force controls the world. For example, interventions that promote analytical thinking in the general public are likely to be effective. The causes of events or situations are simplified to exclude complex or interacting factors, as well as the role of chance and unintended consequences. Conspiracy theorists are not even interested in the multitude of conflicting conspiracies. [44] Michael Barkun describes a conspiracy theory as a "template imposed upon the world to give the appearance of order to events". ", This page was last edited on 1 April 2021, at 18:00. Third, conspiracy theories are often presented as special. He suggests that one of the most important characteristics of these accounts is their attempt to unveil the "real but hidden" power relations in social groups. Another approach is to intervene in ways that decrease negative emotions, and specifically to improve feelings of personal hope and empowerment. [76], Conspiracy theories are a prevalent feature of Arab culture and politics. She screamed at him the he was a “fucking idiot!” in front of the convicted criminals who were present in the office. [27], Psychological motives for believing in conspiracy theories can be categorized as epistemic, existential, or social. [68], Theories involving multiple conspirators that are proven to be correct, such as the Watergate scandal, are usually referred to as "investigative journalism" or "historical analysis" rather than conspiracy theory. [63] Conspiracy theory conversely posits the existence of secretive coalitions of individuals and speculates on their alleged activities. | Rick and Morty https://goo.gl/3F4lzaDeadpool WROTE Deadpool?! Responses are then assessed using a double standard, where failing to provide an immediate response to the satisfaction of the conspiracy theorist will be claimed to prove a conspiracy. A conspiracy theory is an explanation for an event or situation that invokes a conspiracy by sinister and powerful groups, often political in motivation,[2][3] when other explanations are more probable. [6] There are, however, some philosophical attempts to analyze conspiracy theory as such (conspiracy theory theory) in order to avoid pejorative dismissal of certain narratives and to understand the use of the term "conspiracy theory" to mean a narrative that has been debunked by experts on a case-by-case basis. [38] The word "conspiracy" derives from the Latin con- ("with, together") and spirare ("to breathe"). [46], A conspiracy theory may take any matter as its subject, but certain subjects attract greater interest than others. Where no one has actually committed a criminal act, the punishment varies. "[122], Michael Kelly, a The Washington Post journalist and critic of anti-war movements on both the left and right, coined the term "fusion paranoia" to refer to a political convergence of left-wing and right-wing activists around anti-war issues and civil liberties, which he said were motivated by a shared belief in conspiracism or shared anti-government views. [9][10] Research suggests that conspiracist ideation—belief in conspiracy theories—may be psychologically harmful or pathological[11][12] and that it is correlated with psychological projection, paranoia and Machiavellianism. The "Enemy Above" involves powerful people manipulating events for their own gain. Rick's True CRIME! Former governor of Arkansas and political opponent of Obama, Mike Huckabee made headlines in 2011[56] when he, among other members of Republican leadership, continued to question Obama's citizenship status. [76][108][109][110][111][81], According to Berlet and Lyons, "Conspiracism is a particular narrative form of scapegoating that frames demonized enemies as part of a vast insidious plot against the common good, while it valorizes the scapegoater as a hero for sounding the alarm". [51] This puts "the equivalent of 120 million Americans in the 'chemtrails are real' camp. [b] The relationship between legitimate and illegitimate knowledge, Birchall claims, is closer than common dismissals of conspiracy theory contend. https://goo.gl/iSgHevSubscribe for More Awesome Theories! The physicist David Robert Grimes estimated the time it would take for a conspiracy to be exposed based on the number of people involved. Similarly, they depict the public as ignorant and powerless against the alleged conspirators, with important aspects of society determined by malevolent forces, a viewpoint which is likely to be disempowering. They state that among both the left-wing and right-wing, there remains a willingness to use real events, such as Soviet plots, inconsistencies in the Warren Report, and the 9/11 attacks, to support the existence of unverified and ongoing large-scale conspiracies. See Whitfield v. United States, 453 U.S. 209 (2005). Uscinski, Joseph E. and Joseph M. Parent, Uscinski, Joseph E. "The 5 Most Dangerous Conspiracy Theories of 2016", Wood, Gordon S. "Conspiracy and the paranoid style: causality and deceit in the eighteenth century. It cites a 1909 article in The American Historical Review as the earliest usage example,[36][37] although it also appeared in print as early as April 1870. Additionally, research[115] done by Manchester Metropolitan University suggests that "delusional ideation" is the most likely condition that would indicate an elevated belief in conspiracy theories. The political scientist Michael Barkun, discussing the usage of "conspiracy theory" in contemporary American culture, holds that this term is used for a belief that explains an event as the result of a secret plot by exceptionally powerful and cunning conspirators to achieve a malevolent end. Conspiratorial strategies also share characteristics with those used by lawyers who are attempting to discredit expert testimony, such as claiming that the experts have ulterior motives in testifying, or attempting to find someone who will provide statements to imply that expert opinion is more divided than it actually is. [33][34][35] A broad cross-section of Americans today gives credence to at least some conspiracy theories. [39] According to a study by Andrew McKenzie-McHarg, in contrast, in the nineteenth century the term conspiracy theory simply "suggests a plausible postulate of a conspiracy" and "did not, at this stage, carry any connotations, either negative or positive", though sometimes a postulate so-labeled was criticized. The series aired for four seasons (50 episodes) across Canada on Vision TV from 2011-2016. [104][105] According to Barkun, the appeal of conspiracism is threefold: This third point is supported by research of Roland Imhoff, professor in Social Psychology at the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz. [20] Conspiracy theories are most successful when proponents can gather followers from the general public, such as in politics, religion and journalism. Historian Kathryn S. Olmsted cites three reasons why Americans are prone to believing in government conspiracies theories: Historically, conspiracy theories have been closely linked to prejudice, witch hunts, wars, and genocides. [34], However, presenting people with factual corrections, or highlighting the logical contradictions in conspiracy theories, has been demonstrated to have a positive effect in many circumstances. [16][17][18] They are often strongly believed by the perpetrators of terrorist attacks, and were used as justification by Timothy McVeigh and Anders Breivik, as well as by governments such as Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union,[16] and Turkey. The John Birch Society emulates Communist cells and quasi-secret operation through "front" groups, and preaches a ruthless prosecution of the ideological war along lines very similar to those it finds in the Communist enemy. Some people prefer socio-political explanations over the insecurity of encountering random, unpredictable, or otherwise inexplicable events. [90], The primary defense against conspiracy theories is to maintain an open society, in which many sources of reliable information are available, and government sources are known to be credible rather than propaganda. Conspiracy theories are often commonly believed, some even being held by the majority of the population. 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